The Old Testament is the first major part of the Christian Bible. It contains writings about ancient Israel, covenant, law, worship, wisdom, prophecy, poetry, national history, exile, and hope. Christians read these books as scripture, while also recognizing that they originated within the religious history of Israel and Judaism.
What is in the Old Testament?
The collection includes several kinds of literature. The Torah or Pentateuch contains Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. Historical books narrate Israel’s settlement, monarchy, exile, and return. Wisdom and poetic books include works such as Psalms, Proverbs, Job, and Ecclesiastes. Prophetic books preserve messages associated with figures such as Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the twelve minor prophets.
The difference is therefore not simply a matter of rearranging the same table of contents. Christian traditions inherited and received somewhat different ancient scriptural collections.
Catholic Old Testaments contain 46 books. In addition to the books above, the Catholic canon includes Tobit, Judith, Wisdom, Sirach, Baruch, 1 Maccabees, and 2 Maccabees, together with additional material in Esther and Daniel. Eastern Orthodox canons are broader in some cases and are not completely identical across all Orthodox churches; texts such as 1 Esdras, 3 Maccabees, or Psalm 151 appear in some traditions.
- Pentateuch: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy.
- Historical books: Joshua, Judges, Ruth, 1–2 Samuel, 1–2 Kings, 1–2 Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther.
- Poetry and wisdom: Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs.
- Major prophets: Isaiah, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Ezekiel, Daniel.
- Twelve minor prophets: Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi.
A standard Protestant Old Testament contains 39 books. Grouped in the common Christian order, they are:
Books of the Old Testament at a glance
Old Testament and Hebrew Bible
The Christian Old Testament overlaps extensively with the Jewish Tanakh, but the organization and number of books are not identical in every tradition. Jewish Bibles group the scriptures as Torah, Prophets, and Writings. Christian Bibles usually organize the material as Pentateuch, historical books, wisdom or poetry, and prophets.
The term “Old Testament” belongs to Christian usage. When discussing Jewish scripture in a Jewish context, “Hebrew Bible” or “Tanakh” is usually more appropriate.
Why Christian Bibles contain different numbers of Old Testament books
Protestant Old Testaments generally contain 39 books. Catholic Bibles include additional books and passages commonly called deuterocanonical books. Eastern Orthodox canons are not identical to the Catholic canon and may contain further texts. The differences reflect the history of the Hebrew and Greek scriptural traditions and later decisions about the canon.
Main themes
- Creation: Genesis presents theological accounts of the world, humanity, and the beginnings of Israel’s ancestral stories.
- Covenant: God’s relationships with figures such as Noah, Abraham, and the people of Israel are central.
- Law: the Torah contains commandments governing worship, ethics, community, purity, and social life.
- Temple and worship: priesthood, sacrifice, festivals, Jerusalem, and the Temple shape much of the narrative.
- Prophecy: prophets address justice, idolatry, covenant faithfulness, judgment, restoration, and hope.
- Wisdom: wisdom literature reflects on suffering, work, speech, family, mortality, and the search for a faithful life.
How Christians interpret the Old Testament
Christian traditions read the Old Testament in relation to the New Testament and to Jesus Christ, but they do so in different ways. Some passages are read typologically, meaning that earlier persons, institutions, or events are seen as patterns later associated with Christ. Churches also study the historical and literary setting of the texts rather than treating every passage as the same kind of writing.
Law and Christian practice
Christians disagree about how particular Old Testament laws apply after the New Testament. Most churches distinguish in some way between Israel’s ancient legal system and Christian moral teaching, but they do not all use the same categories or reach the same conclusions on every commandment.
Why the Old Testament matters
The Old Testament supplies much of the language and background used in the New Testament: creation, covenant, Messiah, sacrifice, kingdom, prophecy, wisdom, and the Psalms. It is therefore necessary for understanding the origins of Christianity as well as the long religious history that Christianity shares with Judaism.
